Before the formation of a unified England, the land was divided into various kingdoms, each ruled by its own monarch. These early rulers played crucial roles in shaping what would eventually become the Kingdom of England. Here are some notable rulers from earlier times:

Celtic and Roman Britain (Pre-5th Century)

Celtic Tribal Kings (Before 43 AD)

Prior to Roman rule, the island of Britain was inhabited by various Celtic tribes, each with its own leader or king. These tribal rulers were influential in controlling regions across the island:

• Cassivellaunus (1st century BC): One of the first documented British tribal leaders, he led the resistance against Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain in 55 and 54 BC. He was from the Catuvellauni tribe.
• Caratacus (c. 10 AD – c. 50 AD): A king of the Catuvellauni, Caratacus led a determined resistance against the Romans after they invaded Britain in 43 AD. He became a symbol of British resistance after being captured and taken to Rome, where he gave a defiant speech to the emperor.

Roman Rule in Britain (43-410 AD)

From 43 AD to the early 5th century, much of Britain was part of the Roman Empire, ruled by Roman governors. While Britain had no native kings during this period, Roman emperors such as Claudius (who initiated the conquest) and Hadrian (who built Hadrian’s Wall) had direct influence over the island.

The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (5th to 9th Century)

After the Roman withdrawal in the early 5th century, various Germanic tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, settled in Britain. They established several small kingdoms in what is now England. This period is known as the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, referring to the seven major kingdoms that emerged.

Kingdom of Kent

• Æthelberht of Kent (c. 560–616): Æthelberht was one of the first Anglo-Saxon kings to convert to Christianity after Saint Augustine’s mission to England in 597. He ruled Kent, one of the earliest and most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Æthelberht’s law code was the first written law code in English.

Kingdom of Wessex

• Cerdic (519–534): Considered the founder of the Kingdom of Wessex, Cerdic was a leader of the Anglo-Saxon settlement in southern England. His descendants, including Alfred the Great, would eventually unite the English kingdoms.

Kingdom of Mercia

Penda of Mercia (c. 626–655): A powerful pagan king, Penda led Mercia during its height of power. He was known for his military campaigns against Northumbria and Wessex. Penda was one of the last major Anglo-Saxon rulers to resist the spread of Christianity.

Offa of Mercia (757–796): Often considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings, Offa ruled Mercia at its zenith. He is known for building Offa’s Dyke, a large earthwork along the border between England and Wales. Offa forged diplomatic ties with Charlemagne, the ruler of the Franks.

Kingdom of Northumbria

Edwin of Northumbria (616–633): Edwin was a Christian king of Northumbria who expanded his kingdom’s influence across much of England. He was instrumental in the Christianization of his kingdom, and his reign marked the peak of Northumbria’s power.

Oswald of Northumbria (634–642): Oswald was revered as a Christian king and was canonized as a saint after his death. He is remembered for his efforts to spread Christianity in the north of England.

Kingdom of East Anglia

• Raedwald of East Anglia (c. 600–624): Raedwald is believed to be the king buried in the famous Sutton Hoo ship burial. He was a powerful ruler and maintained both pagan and Christian practices in his kingdom. His reign was significant during the power struggles of early Anglo-Saxon England.

Viking Invasions and Danelaw (9th Century)

From the late 8th century onward, Viking raids and invasions brought new rulers and dynasties to parts of England. The Danes, who came from Scandinavia, established control over large portions of England, known as Danelaw.

Ivar the Boneless (c. 865–873): Ivar was a legendary Viking leader and one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded England in the 860s. He was instrumental in the conquest of much of Northumbria.

Guthrum (d. 890): A Danish king and one of the leaders of the Great Heathen Army, Guthrum fought against Alfred the Great but was defeated. After his defeat, Guthrum converted to Christianity, with Alfred as his godfather, and ruled over East Anglia.

Alfred the Great and Unification (9th Century)

The Viking invasions prompted a response from the kingdom of Wessex, and its kings, particularly Alfred the Great, began to consolidate power across southern England.

• Alfred the Great (871–899): Alfred is one of the most revered figures in English history. He successfully defended Wessex against Viking invasions and, after his victory at the Battle of Edington (878), negotiated a peace treaty with the Viking leader Guthrum. Alfred is credited with laying the foundations for a united England, strengthening the legal system, and promoting education and literacy.

Emergence of England (10th Century Onwards)

Edward the Elder (899–924)

Alfred’s son, Edward the Elder, continued his father’s work of uniting the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. He expanded Wessex's control over Mercia and East Anglia, bringing most of England under his rule.

Æthelstan (924–939)

Æthelstan, Edward’s son, is often considered the first "King of all England" due to his successful campaigns against the Vikings and his control over all the Anglo-Saxon territories. His reign marked the formal unification of England.

Early Kings of England

Alfred the Great (871-899) – One of the most famous Anglo-Saxon kings, Alfred defended England from Viking invasions and established a foundation for English law and education. He is the only English monarch to be called "the Great."

Æthelstan (924-939) – Often regarded as the first true King of England, Æthelstan united several kingdoms, including Wessex and Mercia, and defeated Viking armies. His victory at the Battle of Brunanburh (937) is legendary.

The Norman Conquest

William the Conqueror (1066-1087) – After defeating Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William became the first Norman King of England. His reign introduced the feudal system and significant changes in English governance. The Domesday Book, a great survey of England, was commissioned by him.

Henry I (1100-1135) – William's son, Henry I, known for his administrative reforms, was also the first to establish the Exchequer, England's financial management system. His only legitimate son drowned in the White Ship disaster, leading to a succession crisis.

Stephen (1135-1154) – Henry I’s nephew, Stephen’s reign was marked by civil war, known as "The Anarchy," as he fought with Henry’s daughter, Matilda, for the crown.

The Plantagenet Dynasty

Henry II (1154-1189) – Founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, Henry II expanded English holdings in France and famously clashed with Archbishop Thomas Becket, leading to Becket’s murder. His legal reforms are a foundation of modern English law.

Richard the Lionheart (1189-1199) – Renowned for his bravery and role in the Third Crusade, Richard spent little time in England, focusing more on his European territories and military campaigns.

John (1199-1216) – Known as "Bad King John," he lost most of his French territories and faced rebellion from the barons, leading to the sealing of the Magna Carta in 1215, which limited royal power.

Edward I (1272-1307) – Called "Longshanks," Edward was a skilled military leader and legal reformer. He is known for his campaigns in Wales and Scotland, and his conflicts with Scottish leader William Wallace were immortalized in the film Braveheart.

The Wars of the Roses

Henry VI (1422-1461, 1470-1471) – Henry VI’s mental illness and weak leadership contributed to the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars between the houses of Lancaster and York. His reign ended twice as he was deposed by Edward IV.

Richard III (1483-1485) – The last Yorkist king, Richard III’s short reign ended at the Battle of Bosworth Field, where he was defeated by Henry Tudor (Henry VII), marking the end of the Wars of the Roses.

The Tudors

Henry VIII (1509-1547) – One of England’s most famous monarchs, Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England, primarily to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He had six wives, two of whom (Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard) were executed.

Elizabeth I (1558-1603) – Known as the "Virgin Queen," Elizabeth presided over a golden age of English culture, particularly in literature, with the works of William Shakespeare. Her navy famously defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, securing England as a Protestant nation.

The Stuarts

James I (1603-1625) – James was the first monarch to rule both England and Scotland, uniting the two crowns. His reign saw the production of the King James Bible, but also rising tensions that would lead to civil war.

Charles I (1625-1649) – His attempts to rule without Parliament and impose religious changes sparked the English Civil War. Charles was eventually defeated, captured, and executed in 1649, leading to a brief republican period.

Charles II (1660-1685) – After the Commonwealth period under Oliver Cromwell, the monarchy was restored in 1660. Charles II, known as the "Merry Monarch," was known for his indulgent court and a more tolerant religious policy.

The Glorious Revolution and Constitutional Monarchy

1. William III and Mary II (1689-1702) – After James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 for his Catholicism, William of Orange and his wife Mary (James II’s daughter) ruled jointly. This marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy, limiting royal powers and enhancing Parliament's role.

The Hanoverians

George III (1760-1820) – His long reign included significant events like the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. George’s later years were marked by periods of mental illness, during which his son ruled as Prince Regent.

Victoria (1837-1901) – The second-longest reigning monarch in British history, Queen Victoria presided over the expansion of the British Empire, the Industrial Revolution, and major social changes. The Victorian era is noted for its cultural, political, and technological advancements.

King George IV (1762–1830) was the King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and King of Hanover, from 1820 until his death in 1830. He had previously served as Prince Regent from 1811 to 1820, during his father King George III's period of mental illness. George IV is known for his extravagant lifestyle, love of the arts, and for presiding over a period of social and political change in Britain. However, he was also widely criticised for his personal behavior, which often alienated him from both his subjects and his own government.

The Modern Monarchs

George V (1865–1936) was the King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 1910 until his death in 1936. He played a pivotal role in guiding the British monarchy through a period of immense social and political change, including World War I, the rise of socialism, and the decline of the British Empire.

Edward VIII (1894–1972) was the King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions for less than a year in 1936. He is most famous for being the only British monarch to voluntarily abdicate the throne, primarily because of his relationship with an American divorcée, Wallis Simpson. His abdication caused a constitutional crisis and changed the course of British royal history.

George VI (1936-1952) – King during World War II, George VI is known for his steadfast leadership during the war and his personal struggle with a stammer, which was popularized in the film The King’s Speech.

There was never a George the VII

Elizabeth II (1952-2022) – The longest-reigning monarch in British history, Elizabeth II saw dramatic changes in British society and the role of the monarchy. Her reign spanned 70 years, during which the British Empire transitioned into the Commonwealth of Nations, and she became a beloved global figure.

Charles III (2022-present) – The current monarch, Charles III, assumed the throne after the passing of Queen Elizabeth II. His reign is still developing, but Charles has long been known for his environmental advocacy and interest in architecture.

Conclusion

These early rulers, from the tribal Celtic kings to the Anglo-Saxon monarchs and Viking conquerors, laid the groundwork for the later English monarchy. Their battles, alliances, and efforts to unify the kingdom helped shape the future of the nation, culminating in the establishment of a unified Kingdom of England by the 10th century.

The continued history of England's monarchy is long and storied, stretching back over a thousand years. Below is an overview of key kings and queens, their notable stories, and the impact they had on the country.

Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and were used throughout the Roman Empire. They are based on combinations of seven basic symbols:

This is to understand the numerical system in naming the kings and Queens.

The Seven Basic Roman Numerals:

1. I = 1
2. V = 5
3. X = 10
4. L = 50
5. C = 100
6. D = 500
7. M = 1,000

Rules of Roman Numerals:

Adding Symbols: When smaller numbers are placed to the right of larger numbers, their values are added. For example:

• VI = 5 + 1 = 6
• XII = 10 + 1 + 1 = 12
• XX = 10 + 10 = 20

Subtracting Symbols: When a smaller numeral is placed before a larger numeral, its value is subtracted. This rule prevents four of the same symbols from being repeated in a row. For example:

• IV = 5 - 1 = 4 (instead of writing IIII)
• IX = 10 - 1 = 9
• XL = 50 - 10 = 40
• CM = 1,000 - 100 = 900

Examples of Common Roman Numerals:

• II = 1 + 1 = 2
• VIII = 5 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 8
• XV = 10 + 5 = 15
• XXI = 10 + 10 + 1 = 21
• LXX = 50 + 10 + 10 = 70
• XC = 100 - 10 = 90
• DCC = 500 + 100 + 100 = 700
• MCMXC = 1,000 + (1,000 - 100) + (100 - 10) = 1,990

Roman Numerals in Modern Use:

Roman numerals are still used today in various contexts:

• Clocks and watches: Some clocks use Roman numerals to indicate hours.
• Monarchs and Popes: Monarchs like Henry VIII or Elizabeth II use Roman numerals to differentiate between rulers of the same name.
• Movie Sequels and Sports Events: Roman numerals are used in titles like "Super Bowl XL" or "Rocky II."
• Building Dates: Buildings or monuments sometimes use Roman numerals to indicate the year they were built.